The Psychology of Nations

different or more complex beginnings of war.Nusbaum (86) says that both offense and defense are based upon an_expansion impulse_. Nicolai (79) sees the beginning of war inindividual predatory acts, involving violence and the need of defense.Again we find the migratory instinct, the instinct that has led groupsof men to move and thus to interfere with one another, regarded as thecause of war, or as an important factor in the causes. Sometimes apurely physiological or growth impulse is invoked, or vaguely theinability of primitive groups to adapt themselves to conditions, or togain access to the necessities of life. Le Bon (42) speaks of thehunger and the desire that led Germanic forces as ancient hordes toturn themselves loose upon the world.Leaving aside for the moment the question of the nature of theimpulses or instincts which actuated the conduct of men originally andbrought them into opposition, as groups, to one another, we do find atleast some suggestion of a working hypothesis in these simpleexplanations of war. Granted the existence of groups formed by theaccident of birth and based upon the most primitive protective andeconomic associations, and assuming the presence of the emotions ofanger and fear or any instinct which is expressed as an impulse orhabit of the group, we might say that the conditions and factors forthe beginning of warfare are all present. When groups have desiresthat can best and most simply be satisfied by the exertion of forceupon other groups, something equivalent to war has begun.